Charles De Gaulle undertook covert operations in Quebec using nationalist and separatist movements in Quebec, under the rubric of "Assistance et Cooperation Technique" or "Operation Ascot." Jacques Foccart dispatched SDECE agents to Quebec to develop and foment the growth of separatist movements. In 1968 Foccart and SDECE tried to wrest control of Nigerian oil from Britain and the US by arming and supplying secessionists in Nigeria's oil-rich Biafra region. The revolt was crushed at a cost of 500,000 lives. The "Common Program" established by the Socialist and Communist parties in 1972 included the demand of Communists for the dissolution of the SDECE. This measure was not supported by socialist camp, and intentions of President François Mitterand were unknown at the time of his election in May 1981. In fact, the arrival of the Socialists marked the attempt to "civilize" the SDECE. In June 1981, Stone Marion, a civilian who was the former Director of the Paris Airport, was named to the head of the SDECE. Perceived as a "man of the socialists" and a civilian among soldiers, Marion encountered internal opposition from SDECE. On 04 April 1982 the SDECE was replaced by the Directorate of the External Security (DGSE). Based on his experience as an enterprise manager, Stone Marion consolidated the structure and the cohesion of the service by the creation of a General Directorate that controls Directorates of Searches, Counterespionage, Personnel and the mythical Division Action. This stimulated the coordinate computerization of service. Furthermore, the DGSE was no longer permitted to operate on French territory. The contested personality of Marion, and the absence of success in the campaign against terrorism, led to the naming of Admiral Lacoste as the head of the DGSE in 1982. But the "militarization" of the DGSE had slowed, and since the early 1980s the top DGSE military management was gradually replaced by civilians. The proportion of civilians has risen from 45% in 1989 to 60% in 1993. Jacques Dewatre has been the Director of the DGSE since 07 June 1996. In 1996 the total staff of 2,500 included 1,700 civilians, with an official budget of FF 1,350,000,000. About half these resources were devoted to political and diplomatic intelligence, with the remainder equally divided between military and economic intelligence. The current DGSE structure stems from the restructuring imposed by Claude Silberzahn following his arrival as the head of the service in 1989.

The Strategic Directorate is responsible for the determination of the adequacy of sought-after information with needs of clients. It maintains, notably, contact with the Foreign Ministry. It elaborates documents of doctrine and general orientation, as well as studies on possible French political options. The Intelligence Directorate is responsible the collection of information, mainly from human sources, including the employment of illegal agents. It is responsible both for collecting and disseminating intelligence, and it is the main partner of the Operations Directorate. Traditionally oriented to the military intelligence, this Directorate was relatively weak concerning political, economic and technological intelligence until the beginning of the 1980s. In early 1993 the CIA obtained a long DGSE list of the most important intelligence targets in the United States, which included Boeing, among other companies. The DGSE agents were mainly interested in the navigation system of Boeing's new jumbo jet to pass on to French companies, including the Airbus syndicate. The Technical Division was constituted from the former Groupement des Contrôles Radioélectriques [GCR - Radioelectronic Communications Group]. It is responsible for strategic electronic intelligence, and maintains a number of collection stations throughout the world. At a listening station west of Paris, the DGSE can intercept international telephone and fax traffic. With the decision by Defense Minister Alain Richard to close the Bouar base in the Central African Republic, the DGSE will lose one of its major SIGINT communications interception and decryption stations. The DGSE"s other major station, in Djibouti, still remains and may even be enlarged. The Operations Division is responsible for planning and implementing clandestine operations. The 1995 "Operation SATANIC" had the objective of neutralizing the "Rainbow Warrior" ship that was part of the Greenpeace campaign against French nuclear tests in the Pacific. On 10 July 1985 DGSE agents detonated a bomb on the ship while it was in port of Auckland, New Zealand, killing the photographer Fernando Peira. The Division's schemes depend on the Division Action:

The very nature of air power demands a flexible organization in order to allow «ad hoc» task forces (occasionally joint task forces) to be assembled, according to the type of crisis and the nature of the operation. Such task forces are composed of elements drawn from organic (specific) assets. They are placed under the authority of an operational command, which is responsible to the Joint Chief of Staff, and tailored to meet a specific task. The organization of the French Air Force provides the necessary operational flexibility and a command structure adapted to the use of military force whilst ensuring coherent planning of air operations, unified tasking and the most effective use of resources. Thus, it can be seen that the missions and deployment of the Air Force are the responsibility of the Operational Commands while its operational readiness depends on the Organic Commands. The latter role also includes the Air Regions that are responsible for the support of air bases and the units attached to them. The Air Force has units throughout France, as well as in its overseas territories and foreign countries.

OPERATIONAL CHAIN OF COMMAND

The Strategic Air Command (CFAS = Commandement des Forces Aériennes Stratégiques);

The Air Defence and Air Operations Command (CDAOA = Commandement de la Défense Aérienne et des Opérations Aériennes).

TERRITORIAL CHAIN OF COMMAND

There are three Air Regions:

The North-East Air Region (RANE = Région aérienne Nord Est), with its headquarters at Villacoublay;

The Atlantic Air Region (RAA = Région aérienne atlantique), with its headquarters at Bordeaux-Mérignac;

The Mediterranean Air Region (RAM = Région aérienne méditerranée), with its headquarters at Aix-les-Milles.

ORGANIC (SPECIALISED) CHAIN OF COMMAND

The organic (specialised) chain of command comprises five major commands:

Air Combat Command (CFAC = Commandement de la Force Aérienne de Combat);

Air Mobility Command (CFAP = Commandement de la Force Aérienne de Projection);

Air Surveillance, Information and Communication Systems Command (CASSIC = Commandement

Air des Systèmes de Surveillance, d’Information et de Communication);

Air Force Education and Training Command (CEAA = Commandement des Écoles de l’Armée de l’Air);

Air Force Ground Security Command (CFCA = Commandement des Fusiliers Commandos de l’Air).

AIR FORCES BASES

The Air Force base is the level at which all the links from the various commands (operational, organic and territorial) are brought together. Thus, it plays a crucial role in the functioning of the Air Force. The Base Commander has authority over all the units that are stationed on the base (this can include from 600 to 3,500 personnel). He is responsible for maintaining operational effectiveness and for the execution of orders regarding specific missions.

OPERATIONAL ROLE

In order to achieve its role the Air Combat Command has the following assets at its disposal:

Personnel: about 6,700 men and women; this manpower would be augmented by approximately 540 reserve personnel in the case of mobilization.

Equipment: 315 operational combat aircraft, assigned to 15 front line squadrons and 2 reconnaissance squadrons. In order to fulfil its electromagnetic intelligence role, the Command includes the 54th Air Intelligence Wing with two Transalls at its disposal.

- DT 1 FREIBURG

- DT 2 BERLIN

- DT 3 GOSLAR (military enclave of Schalke)

- DT 4 FURSTENFELDBRUCK

- DT 5 BADEN

It thus joined the electronic Flotilla 054, in charge of the implementation of Noratlas 2501 GABRIEL. From November 1, 1963, the commander of the E.E. 054 exerts the functions of second in command and head of the operations of the G.E.E 30/450.

July 1, 1966, the G.E. 30/450 is dissolved. Personnel of the central portion (LAHR) joined the air base 128 of METZ-FRESCATY to constitute the " electronic Group 35/351 ", the E.E. 40/450 becomes E.E. 40/351, the CE.R.T. 50/540 becomes 55/351. These new names mark the membership of these units to the tactical air Force 1st incipient air area. This group increases by a sixth detachment, the DT 6 of STOBERHAI (the F.R.G.), while the DT 1 leaves FREIBURG for STRASBOURG. In October 1968 is created the DT 7 of FURTH-IM-WALD (the F.R.G.). Finally on June 1, 1969, the E.E. 40/351 becomes E.E. 41/351, and absorbs in October 1971 the DT 1 of STRASBOURG. From June 1, 1972, the whole of these means is gathered under the command of the tactical electronic Grouping 30/351 which is made up as follows:

In Metz: an organization of command, the C.E.R.T. 55/351, a Squadron of specialized maintenance E.M.S. 31/351, an electronic Flotilla EE 00/354 pennies controls operational of the commander of the G.E.T.

In the F.R.G.: an electronic Squadron E.E. 41/351 (ACHERN), six electronic detachments (FROM 32 BERLIN - OF 33 GOSLAR - OF 34 FURTENFELDBRUCK - OF 36 BAD-LAUTERBERG - OF 37 FURTH IM WALD - OF 38 BADEN-OOS).

October 1, 1978 is created the Centre of electronic instruction of war C.I.G.E. 56/351, whose mission is to form interceptors linguists or techniques. May 1979 sees the creation of the electronic Squadrons ground: OF 32, 33, 36, 37 become respectively E.E.S. 32, 33, 36 and 37. The E.M.S. is called from now on Groupe of maintenance and implementation (G.M.M.O. 31/351). But it is the creation of the Centre of operations of the G.E.T. (C.O.G.E.T.) who marks more the operational organization of the grouping, since it leads on July 1, 1986 to the dissolution of the C.E.R.T.

THE TACTICAL ELECTRONIC SQUADRON 00.054:
July 1, 1988 is significant date in the organization of the unit, which adopts a structure of Squadron. Thus is born the 54ème tactical electronic Escadre, which takes again the traditions of the 54ème Escadre of bombardment, whose origins go up with the 1st world war. THE E.E. 00.054 becomes electronic Squadron E.E. 01/054 and takes again the name of tradition " DUNKIRK "; it gathers three escadrilles electronic:

For TRANSALL GABRIEL: E.E. 11/054: control plane, E.E.R.E. 31/054: seek electronic (operators of interceptions)

For Technical Helicopter ELINT (H.E.T.): E.E. 21/054 with GOSLAR.

These three escadrilles take again respectively the badges of 1st, 3rd and 4th escadrilles of the 54ème Escadre of bombardment. The C.I.G.E. is definitively attached to the Squadron with punched-card name C.I.G.E. 10/054, the G.M.M.O. becomes GERMas R.E. 15/054, the E.E. of ACHERN is called from now on E.E.S. 04/054, other electronic squadrons ground becoming E.E.S. 02/054 BERLIN, 03/054 GOSLAR, E.E.S. 06/054 BAD-LAUTERBERG, E.E.S. 07/054 FURTH-IM-WALD. This organization sees the arrival with the squadron:

H.E.T., helicopter of the PUMA type modified for the interception of the signals radars, set up at GOSLAR in January 1988,  C 160 G Transall Gabriel (2 ex), replacing faithful " the Gabriel North ", whose last of the six specimens carries out ultimate " the Comer " on October 26, 1989.

Teams of operators have deployed to many of France's former African colonies, to help quell disturbances and provide protection details to visiting VIPs. In 1994, team of EPIGN operators deployed to Rawanda, along with French airborne and special operations units , to conduct Operation Pelican. In December of 1994, EPIGN participated in the rescue of hostages from Air France flight 8969. Members of an Algerian terrorist group, known as the Armed Islamic Group, boarded the flight and hijacked the aircraft. GIGN and EPIGN, along with other French special operations assets, were immediately placed on an alert status. Once the aircraft landed in France, the GIGN and EPIGN teams were prepared to storm the aircraft if necessary. French intelligence operatives received word that the terrorist planned to use the aircraft as a gigantic suicide bomb, exploding the plane while in flight over Paris. The decision was made not to let the aircraft liftoff, and the attack order was transmitted. GIGN assault teams stormed the aircraft while EPIGN teams provided support and secured the area around the aircraft. Once the aircraft had been secured EPIGN Gendarmes helped evacuate hostages and wounded personnel to safety. In 1997, EPIGN once again deployed to Africa. This time to Brazzaville, in the Congo, to help evacuate French expatriates, and to try to restore some form of order to the Former French colony. In 1998 EPIGN protective details, provided security during the Rambouillet summit convened to bring and ended to the ongoing conflict in the former Republic of Yugoslavia. Subordinate to the Gendarmerie Nationale's Groupe de Securite et d'Intervention de La Gendarmerie Nationale (GSIGN- the Gendarmerie's special operations and rapid intervention command), the unit is currently commanded by a Captain, and composed of approximately 140 men. The unit is divided into a command section , and four specialized platoons.

The first platoon is the Operational Support section, and is composed of seventeen men. The second and third platoons are the units Security and Protection platoons. Each is composed of two officers and forty NCO's and enlisted troops and specialize in conducting rapid reaction operations, such as NEOs, and VIP protection. They routinely operate alongside of the Groupe de Securite du President de la Republique (GSPR- the French Secret Service). They are responsible for providing the protection details to the French Minister of Defence, and the military's Chief of Staff. Each platoon also contains a small canine and EOD section. One platoon is always on standby for immediate deployment to crisis spots, or terrorist incidents. The last platoon , which is composed of one officer and thirty-five NCO's and enlisted personnel, is known as the Groupe d'Observation et de Research (GOR), and specializes in conducting surveillance and intelligence gathering missions for the unit. The GOR also contains the units combat swimmer trained personnel. Prospective EPIGN hopefuls are drawn form the ranks of experienced Gendarmerie personnel, with approximately 70% coming from Mobile Gendarmerie units, 20% from the Republican Guard , and 10% from departmental units. Candidates must have at least five years experience before applying to the unit. Their selection process is identical to the one used to select candidates for airborne and special operations units of the French army. EPIGN training classes are very small, averaging 10 students per session (conducted twice yearly). In addition to the their Basic Gendarmerie and airborne training, students attend various specialty courses provided by both the Gendarmerie and the military such as mountaineering, combat medicine, land navigation, communications, advanced weapons handling, defensive driving, and free fall parachuting. Approximately 42 unit members are trained in military free fall techniques (HALO/HAHO), and both the Protection and Security sections and the GOR contain highly trained sniper personnel.

Sub-Directorate of Research centralizes information concerning prevention and combating e terrorism and watches groups which pose hazards to the national territory;

Sub-Directorate of Analysis is responsible for analysis and synthesis of information collected in the social, financial or corporate domains. It devotes an equally large share of its activity to the life of the city and to its deviances, such as urban violence's.

Sub-Directorate of Races and Backlashes is responsible, throughout the national territory, for monitoring backlashes and racial organizations, and it has judicial competence for all specific infringements in this domain.

Sub-Directorate of Resources and Methods manages human resources, logistics, documentation, and ascertains budgetary matters as well as the training of personnel.

Since the Eastern Bloc opened up, the DST has redeployed its operatives, previously working on the Soviets, and assigned them to new threats, the Israelis and the Americans in particular. Since 1992, counterespionage noted that members of the CIA were "approaching" senior civil servants. The DST presently is administered as an internal security agency whose essential function is to search for information for security and to follow the uncertain and diversified evolution of patterns of the threat. Its headquarters has been situated at 1 rue Nélaton in Paris, since July 1985. In late August 1997 the French government appointed Jean- Jacques Pascal to head the DST. Pascal, who was in charge of the political intelligence unit the Renseignements Generaux between 1990 and 1992, took over from Philippe Parant who retired.

The detailed organization of the DST is covered by the secret defence classification. In general, schematically it includes: In Paris, on central administration divided into 5 Sub-Directorates (counterespionage, safety and protection of the patrimony, international terrorism, technical administration and general administration) and a special office of national relationships and international; In the provinces there are 7 regional Directorates, and several brigades and 4 posts installed in overseas terrritories.

With the law no. 66-492 of July 9, 1966, the legislator ended the duality existing between national safety and the prefecture of Police of Paris by creating the National Police force, while preserving the specificity of the Prefecture of Police of Paris.

The law no. 95-73 of January 21, 1995 of orientation and coding relative to security, provided the foundations of a vast reform of the national police force.

The Direction Centrale Police Judiciaire (DCPJ) is a major French internal security service which acts as the "public face" of the DST. One of essential roles of the police is the search for infringements of the law, to observe them, to gather evidence, to identify the authors of crimes, and to apprehend them. Acting thus, the police becomes an ancillary to the judicial authority and takes therefore the JUDICIAL POLICE designation. The Central Directorate of the Judicial Police includes the territorial and central administration of the National Police for the prevention and the repression of the organized crimine and specialized delinquency. Acting on its own initiative or by delegation of magistrates, most of 7.400 officials of the Judicial Police have the grade of Police Officer Judicial. They have a territorial competence either regional or national in scope and implement approaches and techniques of investigation adapted to countering complex and serious criminal phenomena. Central Directorate of Judicial Police, besides the personnel's and administrative divisions, is constituted of operating organs of national competence:

Sub-Directorate of Police Technique and Science is responsible for implementation of identity techniques, managing the large operating Police files (automated fingerprint file, criminal process information, and searched person files), to process for broadcast of research results and for coordinating the management of the five scientific Police laboratories installed in Paris, Lille, Lyon, Marseilles and Toulouse. These submodules are at the disposal judicial authorities and the entire Police administration.

Sub-Directorate of Criminal Businesses that includes central offices for the repression of banditry, the traffic in objects and art works, the traffic in arms, explosives and nuclear and chemical substances as well as of the traffic in drugs. It also includes the national brigades for the struggle against the other patterns of crime against persons and goods (terrorism, administrative document traffic and homicides).

Sub-Directorate of Economic Affairs and Financiers includes, on the one hand, competent central offices concerning repression of the large financial delinquency ("blanchiment" of funds coming from illicit activities) as well as of the false monnayage and, on the other hand, national repression administration of all the other economic and financial infringement categories, counterfeiting and informatics delinquency.

Sub-Directorate of External Linkings includes structures to transverse competence to the range of the Judicial Police: management of cooperation submodules international operating (Interpol, Schengen, Europol), studies and perspectives, technical administration monitoring, formation and internal communication.

The Central offices and the management of the international cooperation have, each in their specific domain, information and operating coordination by relations to the other national administrations concerned. The territorial administration of the Judicial Police include: A regional Directorate of the Judicial Police (DRPJ) in Paris With 3.400 officials, it is competent in Paris intra-muros and in the three adjacent departments. 

The DRPJ of the prefecture of Police counts three Sub-Directorates including: central brigades: criminal businesses, banditry, illicit drug traffic and drug addiction, research and intervention, protection of minors; departmental administration and judicial Police divisions: three departmental administrations of judicial Police (adjacent departments of Paris), six divisions of Paris including judicial Police stations of district or quarter special station police stations; in financial and economic matters, ten judicial delegation staffs with the financial brigade.

Their territorial organization is on three levels: a central administration with the general manager of the national Police in Paris; 9 Regional groupings installed at seats of defence regions; 61 dispersed companies across the metropolitan territory.

RAID is tasked with "leading the National Police in tactical combat against serious crime and terrorism". Its principle missions include the following: Intervention in extreme criminal and terrorist attacks involving hijackings and hostage takings; Assisting other police and security agencies in dealing with violent criminal and terrorist organizations; Assisting other law enforcement agencies in securing large events of national and international importance; Protection of French VIPs, as well as foreign presidents and heads of state visiting France.

RAID, which is currently based Bievres (on the outskirts of Paris), is a relatively small unit consisting of 60 operators. The unit is organized into four 10-man assault groups, one 10-man specialist group (such as EOD personnel, hostage negotiators, and other specialists), and the balance forming the unit's command cadre. Prospective RAID operators are selected from experienced Nationale Police officers. The volunteers must be between 25 to 35 years old, have at least five years of job experience, and they must be in excellent physical condition. Volunteers from all over France apply, but only about 10 in 600 makes it through the arduous selection process. After selection, trainees undergo nine months of training before they are considered operators. The training course is designed to both physically and mentally demanding. The training includes intense physical conditioning, with both trainees and operators already in the unit undergoing at least six hours of physical training daily. Candidates are provided instruction in martial arts, tactical operations, combat and instinctive shooting techniques, rappelling, linear assaults (buses, aircraft, and trains), hostage rescue scenarios, heliborne assaults, high-speed driving techniques, surveillance training, combat medicine, even basic parachuting skills and maritime operations training. Some operators are also sent to attended military training courses and attain HALO/HAHO, and combat diver qualifications.

Prospective unit members are selected from personnel currently serving in French Marine Commando units. They undergo training at the French Navy's dive school located at Saint-Mandrier, near Toulon. The school runs 17 separate courses for armed forces personnel. Perspective Commando Hubert members attend the schools combat diver course. The first phase of combat diver training consists of attaining the basic diver qualification. This phase of the training is open to all French naval personnel. The second phase of training is an advanced diving course and is restricted to combat divers and ordnance clearance (EOD) personnel. The combat diver course is open to male service personnel between 21-27 years old. As a prerequisite to entering training the candidate must also hold the basic diver and commando qualification. Naval personnel wishing to attend must have served four years in the Navy with at least 6 months in a marine commando unit, he must also receive a recommendation from his commander. Each November a list of 24 candidates is submitted to a selection board. After reviewing the candidates service record, 9-12 men are selected to attend the course. The course last 27 weeks and is broken down into 3 phases.

The first phase of training lasts 11 weeks. The first four weeks are devoted to learning basic diving skills and oxygen diving. During the fifth week students learn basic demolition skills. Over the next three weeks students are instructed in the use of rebreathers, under water navigation, and water borne insertions and the basics of small boat handling. The last three weeks of phase one consist of underwater navigation exercises.

Phase two also lasts 11 weeks, and is subdivided into four phases. The first portion of phase two lasts six weeks and includes instruction on conducting sabotage attacks on shipping, small boat handling, the use of the Klepper two-man kayak, and water navigation. The last two weeks of this phase consist of training exercises. During the exercises the students must successfully penetrate the harbour defences at Toulon and place a simulated charge on a ship and escape without being detected. To increase the difficulty of the task, the ship's crew and harbour security forces are forward of the impending attack. The second exercise consists of a simulated raid on the Isle of Porquerolles. The raid exercise lasts for one week. To complete this phase the students must pass one final exercise that combines all of the skills they have been taught so far; the exercise is conducted in the Atlantic Ocean along the Brest coastline.

The final phase of instruction lasts five weeks and is focused on underwater demolition, obstacle clearance, parachute operations (primarily water jumps with and without equipment), and underwater engineering. Upon completion of this phase the new divers are awarded the Combat Diver Qualification Badge, which consists of two sea horses imposed over an anchor and wings.

Upon completing the course the new diver is assigned to Commando Hubert for an initial three year period. During this period the divers are expected to attend the advanced combat diver course (a six-month course), master parachutist, and eventually the Jump Master course. After the initial three-year period with the unit, the diver can opt to extend his tour for three more years, become an instructor at the dive school, or attend additional training.

Currently Commando Hubert is composed of 80 men divided into two companies. The first company consists of 50 men and is subdivided into four sections designated A, B, C, and D. A section is the command and support section. It contains the unit HQ, and the units Hurricane RIBs. B section is the maritime counter terrorism (CT) section. The unit specializes in conducting underwater approaches to terrorist targets. They conduct joint operations with the Navy's GCMC and GIGN's diver section. In the event an assault was ordered on a target at sea, B section divers would act as guides for the GIGN team. C section is the SDV section. The divers of this section receive additional training in the use of SDV's and their maintenance. D section contains the units snipers and heavy weapons experts. The section is responsible for performing beach reconnaissance, shipping attacks, underwater demolition operations, providing heavy fire support, and testing new equipment for use by the unit. All members of D section are both HAHO and HALO qualified. There are currently plans on the board to form an E section. E section will consist of the units Hurricane RIBs, small boats, and support personnel drawn form the 2nd company. The 2nd company is a support unit made up of 30 men. Men are assigned to one of the company's teams which specialize in communications, SDV maintenance, logistics, or small boat operation and repair. The unit also has a French naval vessel, the Poseidon, set aside for its exclusive use. The ship acts as a floating base of operations and as a insertion vehicle for both divers and SDVs.